Social Effects of Mass Communication (Material will be on final exam)

Social Effects of Mass Communication

INVESTIGATING MASS COMMUNICATION EFFECTS
Although you can look at mass media’s effects on individuals and society in a number of ways, we’ve chosen to use the scientific method which employs two primary methods to gather information:

1. Survey The survey consists of a large group of people who answer questions put to them via a questionnaire. Although surveys can’t establish proof of cause and effect, they do help establish associations. One survey type, the panel study, sheds light on patterns of cause and effect. This study type collects data from the same people at two or more different points in time. It controls the effects of other variables to see if viewing TV violence at an early age, for example, is related to aggressive behavior later.

2. Experiment An experiment is performed in a laboratory setting and usually consists of the
controlled manipulation of a single factor to determine its impact on another factor. A variation, the field experiment, is conducted in a real-life setting. Experiments are useful because they can help establish causality.


EFFECTS ON KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDES

Media and Socialization

Socialization includes the ways in which an individual comes to adopt the behavior and values of the group; it is a complex process, extending over a number of years and involving various people and organizations. These groups, called agencies of socialization, contribute to the socialization process.

The Media as a Primary Source of Information

Learning is an important part of the socialization process, and the media (primarily TV) serves as an important source of information, if not the primary one, for a wide range of topics such as politics, crime, occupations, environment, and minorities. Entertainment media also serves as a source of information about such topics as occupations, crime, relationships, minorities, alcohol and drug abuse, morals, values, and law enforcement.

Shaping Attitudes, Perceptions, and Beliefs

The mass media also plays an important role in the transmission of attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs.  In specific, TV can be an influential force with young people when:

. the same stereotyped ideas, people, or behaviors recur consistently in TV programs
. a child is heavily exposed to TV content
. a child has limited interaction with parents or other socializing agents and lacks an
alternative set of beliefs to serve as a standard against which to assess media portrayals

All this means is that, under certain conditions, TV will be an influential force in shaping what children think about certain topics.

Creating Stereotypes:
The TV world often presents images of people and lifestyles that are at odds with reality. There are many areas of reality that are stereotyped by TV such as crime and law enforcement, sex-role portrayals, the depiction of occupations, the methods of problem solving, the portrayals of scientists, and the depiction of mental illness.

The Effects of Heavy Viewing:
Research assumes, but does not necessarily prove, that the mass media plays a significant part in creating either negative or prosocial attitudes among children who are “heavy” TV viewers. Although some evidence points to the media as the cause of certain attitudes, we can’t entirely rule out other explanations. Nevertheless, it’s likely that the link between media exposure and certain attitudes demonstrates reciprocal causation.

The Absence of Alternative Information:
Although the evidence is less consistent here than in other areas, experiments suggest that under some circumstances TV can affect young people’s attitudes about matters for which their environment failed to provide first-hand experience or alternative sources of information. Where media influence is indirect, it is difficult to pinpoint a cause and effect relationship. This is particularly true when the media operates simultaneously with other agencies of socialization and when interpersonal channels outweigh media channels in forming attitudes and opinions.

Cultivation Analysis

Cultivation analysis suggests that heavy TV viewing “cultivates” perceptions of reality consistent with the view of the world presented in TV programs. Cultivation analysis concentrates on the long-term effects of exposure rather than the short-term impact on attitudes and opinions.

Methodology: The first stage is a careful study of TV content to identify predominant themes and messages. Not surprisingly, TV portrays a rather idiosyncratic world that is unlike reality in many dimensions. Step two examines what, if anything, viewers absorb from heavy exposure to the world of television. Study respondents are given questionnaires about our society where each question has two answers: the real world answer and the TV world answer. If heavy viewers show a tendency to choose TV answers, we might have evidence that a cultivation effect is occurring.
Research Findings: How strong is the evidence? Most findings suggest that among some people, TV cultivated distorted perceptions of the real world. Other studies show that cultivation isn’t limited just to children, and other studies show that content other than crime and violence might also evoke a cultivation effect. Although the results of cultivation-analysis studies are intriguing, its conclusions can be clouded by three problems:

1. It’s difficult to determine cause and effect.

2. People differ in ways other than in their TV habits: as such, factors other than TV watching
might affect the differences in perceptions and attitudes between heavy and light viewers.

Two other observations come out of this area:

(a) a phenomena called mainstreaming, whereby differences apparently due to cultural and social factors tend to diminish among heavy TV watchers; and

(b) resonance, a situation in which a respondent’s real life experiences parallel those of the TV world, thereby leading to a greater cultivation effect.

3. Technical decisions about the way TV viewing and attitudes are measured can have a
significant impact on findings, such as the precise wording of the questions.

Recent research suggests that

(a) the cultivation effect is stronger when a particular kind type of TV viewing is measured (e.g., soap operas and adventure series) as opposed to overall TV viewing, and

(b) you must take into account the context of the TV portrayals viewed. In 2007 media scholars reviewed more than 5,600 cultivation analysis studies and findings collected over two decades.

In it, they reported that the cultivation effect is indeed real for many people.

Children and Television Advertising

A typical American child sees about 40,000 TV commercials every year, mostly for toys, cereals, candies, and fast-food restaurants. So it’s not surprising that by the early 1980s, most people accepted the idea that children deserve special consideration from advertisers for the following reasons:

. Children are a vulnerable audience and should not be exploited by TV advertising

. Children, especially young ones, might be easily deceived by TV advertising techniques

. Long-term effects of exposure to TV ads might have a negative effect on a child’s
socialization as a future consumer

A Vulnerable Audience: Research hints that younger children (5 to 8 years old) are able to identify commercials, but they have difficulty separating ads from the rest of the program and have little idea as to the purpose behind them. Older children (9 to 12 years old) are better able to differentiate the ads from the rest of the program and have little trouble distinguishing between the purpose of the ad and a program. In 1974, partly as a result of these findings, broadcasters started using a separation device between the programs, typically a message five to ten seconds long. As before, younger children under five still had trouble distinguishing ad from program content.

Effects of Special Selling Techniques: It’s obvious that toys and other products designed for children can be made to look more appealing through the use of special camera angles, lenses, advertising copy, sound effects, animation, and special lighting techniques. However, the effects of these techniques on children is unclear. In short, exaggerated claims lead to exaggerated expectations and almost always end with exaggerated disappointments. As such, guidelines for toy ads now state that audio and video techniques should not misrepresent the appearance and performance of toys and that disclaimers should be used when batteries are needed, assembly is necessary, or accessory items show in the ad are not included.

Consumer Socialization: Consumer socialization includes all those processes by which children learn behaviors and attitudes relevant to their future behavior as consumers. For example, we do know:

1. as kids get older, they tend to distrust commercials and even become cynical about them

2. exposure to TV commercials is not related to consumer skills, such as price or product value comparisons

3. some studies suggest a link between heavy exposure to ads and the personal endorsement of materialistic values, equating money and possessions as being necessary for happiness

Agenda Setting

By saying the media has an impact on agenda setting, we mean that they have the ability to choose and emphasize certain topics, which can cause the public to perceive these issues as important. Or, as one author put it, “the media may not always be successful in telling people what to think, but they usually are successful in telling people what to think about.” Generally most agenda-setting studies examine information-based media, with much of the research revolving around political campaigns and issues. The research to date suggests:

. cause and effect relationships are still unclear
. the results can hinge on the medium being studied
. topic covered can influence agenda setting (concrete topics do better than abstract ones)
. a person’s experience with the topic will influence the results

The agenda-setting effect can also be influenced by other factors, such as a person’s interest in the topic, experience with the topic, age, education, and political involvement.

Agenda-setting research, now over 30 years old, has two general fields of study:

. framing the way a news topic is treated by the media. This research posits that
not only do the media tell us what to think about, they also tell us how to think about it by the way the story is framed

. agenda building examines how the media build their agenda of newsworthy items. Some
factors that seem to have an impact include presidential press conferences, congressional hearings, and special-interest PR efforts

Television and Cognitive Skills

Studies on what, if anything, heavy TV viewing does to a child’s IQ level are so far inconclusive. Some of the research done on the relationship between reading and TV viewing suggests that the relationship was influenced by such factors as age, the type of TV content watched, social class, and parental attitudes toward reading. Although TV has been linked to decreased intellectual performance, its effects are complicated and its impact is relatively light. On the other hand, the hours that youngsters invest in watching TV don’t seem to pay off in better academic skills.

MEDIA EFFECTS ON BEHAVIOR: A SHORT HISTORY

In 1929, films became the first target of scholarly research into the possible effects of media on the morals and actions of children. The results, as might be expected by now, were inconclusive.

Growing Public Concern

In the 1940s, researchers turned their attention to the potential effects that radio might have on politics. Louisiana Governor Huey Long’s firebrand radio speeches and President Roosevelt’s fireside chats helped jump start the curiosity. The results suggested that the media actually had little direct effect on political decision-making. Instead, personal influence was more important, and individuals called “opinion leaders” were thought to be more important in the decision-making process.

In the 1950s, the research spotlight turned to the potentially negative effects that heavy TV viewing might have on children. A British study concluded that TV did have an impact on children’s values and perceptions of the world, while a US study found that as children got older, heavy TV viewing was associated with lower IQ scores and unsatisfactory social relationships.

During the 1960s, a congressional subcommittee investigating the causes and prevention of violence concluded that constant viewing of violent behavior on TV might cause antisocial behavior among young people. A study ordered by President Johnson concluded that (a) more definitive research in this area was needed, and (b) that a “constant diet of violent behavior on television had an adverse effect on human character and attitudes.” During the same period, a presidential commission studying obscenity and its effects concluded that all laws prohibiting the distribution of pornographic materials be repealed.

TV Violence

In 1972, and again in 1982, federally funded research projects determined that exposure to TV violence could increase the probability of antisocial behavior and that there was a causal link between TV violence viewing and real-life aggressive behavior.

The 1990s saw the start of program advisories, which warned TV viewers of upcoming programs that  featured strong language, violence, or sexual content. The Telecommunication Act of 1996 also took on the TV violence problem with the introduction of the V-Chip, a device that could electronically block out programs that were unsuitable for younger viewers. The success of this new technology depended on creating a new program rating system, and the TV and cable industries responded (after a failed first attempt) with a detailed content warning system patterned after the MPAA film ratings.


THE IMPACT OF TELEVISED VIOLENCE

Survey Results: Though it is difficult to summarize decades of surveys, this conclusion may come closest to being the most representative, “the evidence to date indicates that there is a significant correlation between the viewing of violent television programs and aggressive behavior in day-to-day life.” Nevertheless, a relationship is not necessarily evidence of a cause and effect.

In 1986, a five-country panel study came to varying conclusions about the effects on children of viewing TV violence and their later aggressive behavioral tendencies. The panel did, however, agree on two major areas:

. the relationship between the viewing of violence and aggressive behavior tends to be weak

. there was a pattern of circularity in causation. Viewing violent TV caused some children to become more aggressive, and being aggressive caused them to watch more violent TV

Experimental Results: The Catharsis vs. Stimulation Debate

Two mainstream avenues to explore the impact of media violence on audiences have been attempted. The first is from the Aristotelian theory of catharsis. This theory holds that viewing scenes of aggression can actually purge the viewer’s own aggressive feelings. The second approach, stimulation theory, holds just the opposite view and suggests that seeing scenes of violence will actually stimulate an individual to behave more violently afterward. The results of numerous studies in these areas conclude that watching media violence does tend to stimulate aggressive behavior, while on the other hand, there is little empirical evidence for catharsis.

Bandura’s Experiment

A series of experiments conducted by psychologist Albert Bandura in the 1960s indicated that, in fact, film and TV just might teach aggressive behavior in children. Bandura’s research team found that children who had just finished watching violent content on TV or film were much more likely to be aggressive in follow up situations than were children who had not been exposed to TV violence.

Complicating Factors

As “conclusive” as reports from laboratory experiments may sound, there are many complicating factors that could be influencing the outcome; these factors could include the experimental setting itself, participant age and sex, length and type of violent media content, who the subject watches the film with and what their reactions are, social class, family history, economic background and so on. Finally, the reactions of other people to the same media exposure can directly influence a viewer’s the potential for aggressive behavior.

Field Experiments: Although people in field experiments are studied in their natural environments, and thus react more naturally than in a lab setting, they’re also exposed to new, outside influences that may affect results.

Though results vary, surveys, panel studies, lab research studies, and field experiments all tend to support the notion that violent TV viewing may foster aggressive behavior in some viewers.

What Can We Conclude?

Though no one study or group of studies can make any definitive conclusion, a consistent thread seems to run through most experiments about watching TV violence and aggressive behavior. Taken as a whole, these results encourage a tentative acceptance of the proposition that watching violence on television increases aggressiveness on the part of at least some viewers. Yet while the effects might be small, they are not necessarily trivial.


ENCOURAGING PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR

While most media research has concentrated on investigating the potential negative effects of media consumption by some people, some scholars began examining the positive effects the media might have on people. These effects, called prosocial behavior, can include actions such as cooperation, sharing, self-control, and helping.

Developing Self-control

Lab experiments have shown that films and TV programs can affect a young child’s self-control.

Cooperation, Sharing, and Helping

Experiments here show that children are willing to imitate cooperative, generous, and helping behavior, which they’ve seen portrayed in a film or on television programs.

Survey Data

Though survey data on prosocial media effects are scarce, what there is suggests that children do perceive prosocial messages incorporated into a film or television program. However, two survey studies have found little relationship between viewing prosocial messages and actually transferring those actions into everyday behavior.

OTHER BEHAVIORAL EFFECTS

Political Behavior

Studies of Voter Turnout: Voter turnout has dropped continually since 1964, but there is little, if any, conclusive data to link that fact with the media. But some relationships are notable; for example, data from presidential elections from 1960-1976 indicate that the frequency of reading a newspaper was strongly related to voter turnout, but radio and television exposure were not.

Negative political advertising does not seem to have much of an effect on voters above reinforcing already polarized views on candidates and issues. The research shows, from the candidate's perspective, that negative political advertising is worth any potential backlash IF that person is behind in the polls. Candidates have come from far behind to win elections thanks to some really nasty advertisements. If, however, the candidate is way ahead in the polls, any kind of negative advertising often has a "boomerang" effect for the the leading candidate (voters don't like the heavy favorite picking on the underdog-- Americans love the "underdog" story).

Effects of the Mass Media on Voter Choice: When it comes to choosing a candidate to vote for, the mass media functions along with many other factors, both social and psychological, to affect a person’s choice. Some generalizations can, however, be put forward. First, conversion, switching your vote from one political party to another, is unlikely to result from simple media exposure since it’s difficult for the media to persuade someone whose mind is already made up, and roughly 2/3 of voters have made up their minds before the campaigns even begin. Far more common are two effects that have a direct bearing on voter choice:

. reinforcement strengthening or support of existing attitudes and opinions

. crystallization sharpening and elaboration of vaguely held attitudes or predispositions

If a person approaches a campaign undecided or neutral, then crystallization is likely to occur. If the person has already made up his or her mind, then reinforcement will probably take place.

A key factor in winning any election is to keep the party faithful loyal (reinforcement) and to persuade enough of the undecided people to vote for your side (crystallization) in order to win.
Thus, even though widespread conversion is not usually seen, the media are still influential. Yet
these effects are generally attributable to national and perhaps even state wide elections; other studies indicate, however, that newspapers may heavily influence the outcome of local elections.

The Debates: Research into the effects of presidential debates suggests that they’ve actually had little effect other than reinforcing previously held opinions on the candidates. That said, debates may affect the choice of previously undecided or neutral voters; though the numbers may be small, it’s worth remembering that the 1960 Kennedy-Nixon election was won by less than 1/10 of one percent of the total vote. The principal effect of presidential debates is to reinforce rather than shift voter attitudes. TV debates crystallize opinion far more often than they convert.

Television and the Political Behavior of Politicians: TV has clearly affected the political behavior of politicians and political campaigns. Look at the changes politicians have adopted since the advent of TV into the political arena:

. nominating conventions are scheduled to suit TV prime time, and thereby hopefully get
viewers and gain favorable public opinion
. television has dramatically increased the cost of campaigning
. television has become the medium around which most campaigns are organized
. campaign staffs now routinely include TV consultants and image makers

Effects of Obscenity and Pornography

This area of media content has had far fewer research studies than that of the media’s effects on children or politics. In the 1960s, a presidential committee suggested:

. most pornography consumers were middle class, middle-age men
. no evidence that viewing pornography was related to antisocial or deviant behavior
. that pornographic material served a positive function in some healthy, sexual relationships
. that all laws against distributing pornography be repealed

In 1970, the Nixon administration repudiated their findings, and now that study has largely since been ignored.

In 1984, a new commission began re-examining the effects pornography might have on the public. Two years later, and surrounded by political considerations, the commission concluded that pornography, particularly violent pornography, was harmful and that its distribution should be curtailed. More recent studies have found that sexual arousal might be linked to subsequent aggressive behavior if other outlets for release are not available. In addition, other studies found a disturbing link between exposure to pornography and feelings of callousness toward women.


RESEARCH ON THE SOCIAL EFFECTS OF THE INTERNET

Obviously, studies about the effect of the Internet on the public have only recently begun; that said, three major areas of study have already developed:

The impact of Internet use on TV viewing
Early studies suggested that an increased use of the Internet generally comes at the expense of decreased television viewing. What happened instead, however, is that people today (in 2016) watch MORE television than ever before. The Internet didn't lead to a decrease in TV viewing, it led to an increase.

The relationship between Internet use and social involvement
Several early studies have given contradictory results. As such, it’s too early to conclude how, or even  if, heavy Internet usage affects one’s involvement with personal or social relationships.

Internet addiction
As above, little definitive research yet exists. However, psychologists have identified three characteristics of any addiction:

1) increased tolerance,
2)loss of control, and
3) withdrawal.

COMMUNICATION IN THE FUTURE: SOCIAL IMPACT

Privacy

While the advent of new communication technology and the explosion of harvesting personal information about us have obviously contributed to our own benefit as well as society’s, there are just as many troubling issues all that information exchange raises. One of the biggest issues is our increasing loss of privacy in the area of e-mails, cell phones, medical records, shopping habits, financial information, and so on. Information is getting to be uncomfortably easy to find and access through centralized computer databases.

Fragmentation and Isolation

Mass media are increasingly serving the needs of more specialized audiences, thus directing individuals toward more selective content exposure. If this trend continues, it could result into smaller and smaller interest groups with little in common with the rest of society. This phenomena has been labeled the cocoon effect by sociologists. This effect suggests that people surround themselves with only the political and social information that they find comforting, appealing, or acceptable. Moreover, as telecommuting becomes more popular, more people will stay at home. Already the computer allows consumers to work, bank, shop, and be entertained without leaving the confines of your family room. What might happen if people begin to overly distance themselves from the reality of the outside world?

Overload in the Information Society

One of the central problems for 21st Century citizens may well be how they manage the vastly increasing flood of news, information, and entertainment available to them. It’s likely that those who succeed in the future will be the ones who can maximize the efficiency of their information-seeking behavior.

Escape

The possibility of people immersing themselves in the world of mass media and tuning out of the real world has always been a concern, but it just didn’t happen that often or with any significant numbers of people. Today, however, with the advent and advances in the areas of HDTV, the Internet, 3D technology, and role playing games, those fears have again resurfaced, and this time perhaps, with considerably more likelihood of becoming realized.